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Science - Interactive Guidelines
Interactive Guidelines -
Knowledge & Understanding

In order for the educational process to be easy, interesting, and meaningful, it is worth buy book reports and also studying various methodologies for presenting the material.

Earth & Space
Earth in Space
D this is
Level E
F
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Materials from Earth
Energy & Forces Living Things

Changing materials
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuES-E1.1

Target Menu from G18

Earth in Space

explain day, month and year in terms of the relative motion of the Sun, the Earth and the Moon

record the changes in shape of the Moon over a calendar month and use models to illustrate and explain the phases

use video or computer programmes to establish the difference between the 24-hour rotation and 365-day (approximate), orbit of the Earth

use a datalogger to collect data about temperature and light using a tilted globe

relate these measurements to seasonal changes

This is a challenging topic for pupils and teacher alike. The Moon orbits the spinning Earth that is itself in orbit round the Sun. Good evidence of these relationships comes from a solar eclipse, when Earth, Moon and Sun are aligned, with the Moon preventing sunlight from reaching us. For able pupils it is worth introducing the subject of gravitational effects on our oceans, so that when Sun and Moon pull from the same direction we get our largest tides. Similarly, the inclination of the Earth's axis can be introduced to explain seasons. There should be an appropriate emphasis on scale and pupils should be introduced to the use of light years to measure vast distances [the distance that light, travelling at 300,000 km per second (186,000 miles per second), covers in one year]. Light from the Sun takes only 8.3 minutes to reach Click here to go to the start of this Strandus, representing a very short distance in terms of space.
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Target Menu from G18

Earth in Space
describe the Universe in terms of stars, galaxies and black holes

use small research teams to gather information, each team to focus on one feature

find a way of displaying the salient features of stars, galaxies and black holes in order to distinguish between them.

During research, other familiar terms will be encountered - planets, moons, comets, asteroids, meteorites. This might help establish scale of the much larger stars and galaxies. For black holes the emphasis is on the dead star becoming smaller and smaller yet having a constant mass. Near the surface of the star there is a corresponding increase in gravitational pull, which eventually becomes so strong that Click here to go to the start of this Strandnot even light can escape. A black area with no escaping light is formed.

Earth & Space
Materials from Earth
D this is Level E F
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Earth in Space

Changing materials
Energy & Forces Living
Things
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuES-E2.1

Target Menu from G22

Materials from Earth

describe the particulate nature of solids, liquids and gases and use this to explain their known properties

observe and offer explanations of a variety of experiments:

(comparing masses of identically sized blocks of different materials, putting a small coloured crystal into cold water and into hot water, trying to fit a metal bar into a gauge before and after heating, opening a perfume bottle at a distance, heating a metal rod that has paperclips attached by petroleum jelly, trying to depress syringes filled with solid, liquid and gas)

observe what happens when measured volumes of dried peas and sand are mixed and use this to explain the reduction in volume occurring when alcohol and water are mixed

investigate diffusion in air, in liquid and in gel

predict the effect of gas pressure (collapsing can experiment), using the particulate theory

The series of experiments should be carried out quickly. The purpose is to encourage observations and explanations. Most pupils will have incorrect ideas at this stage. They can be revisited once the particulate nature is established. The terms 'atom' and 'molecule' should be introduced with care. Particle motion is faster in a gas than in a liquid, and faster in a liquid than in a solid. Pupils find it difficult to accept that the spaces contain nothing - believing that they are occupied by air. Take particular care in explaining the pea/sand model. This subject allows for the idea that theories must be tested and that they can be used to explain the results of experiments. Models are very important in helping us to understand how nature works.Click here to go to the start of this Strand


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Target Menu from G28

Materials from Earth
describe what is meant by an element

heat a piece of bread and explain the result

examine a range of materials (elements, rock samples, living things) to illustrate the variety of materials that exist

carry out a sorting exercise to separate elements from other materials

study the Periodic Table and record symbols, appearances and uses of elements

use models to explain how elements are made up of only one kind of particle (atom)

 Much of the bread is lost during the burning but a black solid is left - carbon. This is an example of a simple chemical called an element. It consists of atoms of only one type. When examining the range of materials it will be helpful to include some gases, e.g. chlorine. Prepare samples of hydrogen and oxygen to further illustrate the existence of elements. It may be helpful to point out that many elements are metals.Click here to go to the start of this Strand
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Target Menu from G28

Materials from Earth
describe how physical properties of elements are used to classify them as metals or non-metals

group research task to search for data on five elements (symbol, state at 20 °C, metal or non-metal, magnetic or not, appearance, etc.)

examine a range of metals to establish their common properties

demonstrate malleability

compare metals with non-metals

look up melting points of common metals and non-metals.

There are 84 metals and 21 non-metals. Metals are usually strong, malleable, ductile, sonorous. They shine when polished, are good conductors of heat and electricity and (except mercury) are solid at room temperatures.

Non-metals tend to be brittle. They are not strong, generally have low boiling and melting points and are poor conductors.Click here to go to the start of this Strand

Earth & Space
Changing materials
D this is
Level E
F
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Materials from Earth
Energy & Forces Living Things

Properties & uses of energy
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuES-E3.1

Target Menu from G29

Changing materials

give examples of simple chemical reactions, explaining them in terms of elements and compounds

use models to establish the idea of elements combining to form compounds

demonstrate examples of some reactions between elements and ask them to record their observations in terms of appearance of the reactants and products to include energy release

use models, diagrams and simulation software to represent the compound formed

demonstrate the need for energy to break up a chemical compound by showing that water can be split into hydrogen and oxygen

prepare samples of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide and demonstrate appropriate methods for testing the gas produced during chemical reactions

Classes should be introduced to chemical names and symbols of elements. Pupils should be aware that each compound has a definite composition that can be represented by a formula using these symbols. With proper attention to safety, a range of reactions can be demonstrated.

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Target Menu from G22

Changing materials
describe the effect of temperature on solubility

plan and carry out a valid investigation of the effect of temperature on the solubility of salt or sugar in water

investigate the effect of temperature on the dissolving rate of a range of artificial sweeteners

Pupils should account for variables. In their report they should be encouraged to refer to the particulate nature of matter and to describe what they find in terms of particle movement and spaces between particles of water. It could be noted that for some substances, solubility decreases as Click here to go to the start of this Strandtemperature rises.
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Target Menu from G23

Changing materials
describe the use of pH to measure acidity

examine a range of acids and alkalis and discuss their characteristics

investigate the effect of adding household and laboratory acids and alkalis to dyes extracted from plant material

explore the range of pH of a variety of acids and alkalis

The values alone, '0_14' will be sufficient here, with '7' being neutral. The values can be used to describe strongly or weekly acidic or alkaline solutions. It is not necessary to discuss the difference between weak and strong and dilute and concentrated.Click here to go to the start of this Strand
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Target Menu from G23

Changing materials
describe the process of neutralisation and give some everyday applications

investigate what happens to the pH of a dilute strong alkali when a dilute strong acid is added drop by drop

find out about everyday applications of neutralisation

find out about the use of acids and alkalis in everyday situations

investigate the differences in the acid content of a range of soft drink

Burettes, dilute acid, and conical flasks of dilute alkali with universal indicator should be available. Pupils should be aware of the salt and water products. Note that not all salts are neutral.

Milk of magnesia and indigestion, treatment of garden soil, sodium bicarbonate for acid bee sting and vinegar for alkali wasp sting, hair- and skin-care are all examples.Click here to go to the start of this Strand



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Target Menu from G23

Changing materials
describe what happens when metals react with oxygen, water and acids

investigate reactivity of metals in oxygen, dilute hydrochloric acid and water

investigate displacement reactions

use secondary sources to find out about how reactivity relates to uses and sources of metals

Safety issues must be carefully considered, with judicious demonstration and use of safety goggles. The names of products should feature in this work.Click here to go to the start of this Strand

 

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Target Menu from G23

Changing materials
describe how metal elements can be extracted from compounds in the Earth's crust.

investigate the effects of electrolysis

carry out electroplating experiments

use secondary sources to investigate how some metals are extracted (gold, silver, copper, lead, iron and aluminium).


Energy & Forces
Properties & uses of energy
D this is
Level E
F
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Conversion &
transfer of energy
Earth & Space Living Things

Changing materials
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu

Access this Target MenuEF-E1.1

Target Menu from G25

Properties & uses of energy

describe the differences between the flow of heat by conduction and convection

investigate conduction of heat in a variety of materials

use a spiral of paper to demonstrate convection over a heat source and observe convection using a crystal of potassium permanganate

Conduction is explained in terms of vibrating molecules.

Pupils often believe that when they touch a cold object, cold flows into their fingers, but of course the sensation is due to heat flowing out from their fingers into the cold object. This is why good conductors such as metal feel cold to the touch and why insulators, such as expanded polystyrene, feel relatively warm. Convection is explained in terms of Click here to go to the start of this Stranddensity.

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Target Menu from G25

Properties & uses of energy
give examples of everyday uses of good and poor conductors of heat

make lists of insulators of heat used in the home

identify uses of good conductors of heat used in the home

plan and carry out an investigation to find out what materials will keep a container of water warm for the longest time

Establish that air is a relatively poor conductor and so is often involved in insulation - in clothing, bedding and in newer foam lagging for pipes, etc. Expanded polystyrene could be mentioned, together with the associated fire hazards. Metals are used in radiators, cooking utensils, etc., because they are good conductors. This topic links with materials and their uses.Click here to go to the start of this Strand


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Target Menu from G24

Properties & uses of energy
explain the effect of a prism on white light

use a slide projector to cast a large spectrum on a wall and identify the colours and the order in which they appear

explore and record the images seen in a prism

challenge pupils to find out how the coloured rays produced by a prism can be re-mixed

The rainbow colours always appear in the same order - ROYGBIV (VIBGYOR is easier to remember!). The glass (or plastic) of the prism alters the angle of the light rays passing through. This is called refraction. Each different colour of light is refracted by different amounts, so the white light is split up into its constituent colours.Click here to go to the start of this Strand
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Target Menu from G24

Properties & uses of energy
describe what happens when light passes through different materials

carry out a range of activities to establish the idea that light travels in straight lines

sort a range of materials into opaque, transparent and translucent by shining light from a ray box on to them

measure the amount of light (using a light sensor) that is reflected or transmitted through the different materials

Light travels in straight lines. It is bent (refracted) as it passes into and out of glass. The investigation lends itself to measurement of angles and the collection of more quantitative data. The ideas of reflection, transmission and absorption should be explored.Click here to go to the start of this Strand

 


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Target Menu from G24

Properties & uses of energy
explain what happens when sound passes through different materials

investigate the ability of sound to pass through a vacuum

explore the transmission of sound through liquid and through solid

investigate the effect of soundproofing

carry out a number of surveys on noise pollution in the classroom, school and street from personal stereos

analyse and evaluate information on hearing impairment

Hang an electric bell inside a jar connected to a vacuum pump and listen for sound before and after evacuating the jar. This can be used to establish the need for particles to transmit vibrations.

A pencil can be used to listen to the sound, e.g., of a clockwork timer. Plastic foam, egg boxes and newspapers can all be used to reduce noise.

Teacher should be aware of the need to be sensitive to individual pupils and their families.Click here to go to the start of this Strand


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Target Menu from G30

Properties & uses of energy
This way for the previous target related to Electricity

construct a circuit with one bulb, then find a way of adding two more bulbs without causing the brightness to dim

construct a circuit with two bulbs that can be switched on or off independently

discuss and explore the advantages and uses of parallel and series circuits

Before arriving at the formality of constructing circuits in parallel from diagrams it is worth allowing pupils to play with circuits to try to solve these problems. Thinking investigators might raise questions about the effects on battery life. The point should be made that all household appliances are connected in parallel.Click here to go to the start of this Strand
construct a parallel circuit, following diagrams
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Target Menu from G30

Properties & uses of energy
use the terms 'voltage', 'current' and 'resistance' in the context of simple series circuits

use an ammeter to investigate current flow and use a voltmeter to investigate voltage

construct a variety of parallel circuits and test predictions about the current at various points

investigate which circuit components allow the greatest current to pass and which offer the greatest resistance to the flow of the current

demonstrate the effect of increasing current on a short length of steel wool

discuss the role of fuses in electrical safety.

Pupils should be familiar with the units 'amperes' and 'volts'. Voltage may be explained as an electrical force pushing electricity around a circuit. Large voltage causes a large current. To double current we double the voltage (if the resistance does not change). A thin wire has more resistance than a thick one. The electrical resistance of a wire can produce a heating effect.Click here to go to the start of this Strand


This way for the next target related to Electricity

Energy & Forces  
Conversion & transfer of energy
D this is
Level E
F
  Home Page Access to other Strands & Attainment Outcomes Skills
Properties &
uses of energy

Force & their effects
Earth & Space Living Things
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuEF-E2.1

Target Menu from G19

Conversion & transfer of energy

describe some examples of the interconversion of potential and kinetic energy

investigate the source of energy in a selection of wind-up toys

Pupils should discover that each toy has a mechanism that allows the movement of 'winding-up' to store energy that in turn can be released to move the toy. Movement energy (kinetic) ->stored energy (potential) -> movement (kinetic). The toy has the Click here to go to the start of this Strandpotential for movement when wound up. The energy a toy has because it is moving is called 'kinetic' energy.

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Target Menu from G19

Conversion & transfer of energy
give some examples of chemical energy changes

find out what happens when things burn

discuss flammable and non-flammable materials with regard to safety in the home

collect information on the energy content of a range of foodstuffs

Candles, paper, sugar and magnesium can be investigated, with proper attention to safety.

Refer to labelling on furnishings and relate to safety.

Click here to go to the start of this StrandMany teachers will wish to introduce energy units at this point though there is no formal requirement for this at Level E.

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Target Menu from G19

Conversion & transfer of energy
explain the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy resources

debate the advantages and disadvantages of setting up a wind farm in the vicinity of the school

visit a wind farm or hydroelectric scheme

discuss how pupils can contribute to the conservation of fuel supplies.

The finite nature of coal, gas and oil resources should be stressed and the sustainability of hydroelectric schemes, wind power and solar power emphasised.

Pupils should be helped to visualise a world without oil and the efforts that must be made to provide alternative energy sources. Responsibilities of individuals and communities can be considered, including 'not in my backyard' (NIMBY) objections to Click here to go to the start of this Strandalternative developments.

Energy & Forces
Forces & their effects
D this is
Level E
F
 Home Page Access to other Strands & Attainment Outcomes Skills
Conversion &
transfer of energy
Earth & Space Living Things

Variety &
characteristic features
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuEF-E3.1

Target Menu from G31

Forces & their effects

describe the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces



use two spring balances to pull in opposite directions

use a simple model of a see-saw to investigate relationships between opposing forces

weigh a series of objects suspended in air and then suspended in water

discuss balanced and unbalanced forces on moving and on stationary objects to create explanatory diagrams using arrows to show the direction and scale of the forces involved

The readings on both balances indicate that the two forces are equal - Newton's Third Law of Motion (action force and reaction force are equal and opposite).

The force x distance from the pivot, when the see-saw is balanced, is equal on both sides.

If there were no friction, a trolley pushed in a certain direction would speed up and would then keep going at a constant speed once it was released. Pupils could be encouraged to draw a diagram of a car with the engine thrusting it forward so that the unbalanced force in the direction of movement results in the car speeding up. A block of wood on a table is stationary, with the downward force Click here to go to the start of this Strand(weight) of the block being equal to the upward push of the table.

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Target Menu from G31

Forces & their effects
explain how gravity on other planets and the Moon affects the weight of an object

find out which of the planets of the Solar System have the strongest and the weakest 'gravitational fields'

discuss the gravitational aspects of a manned moon-landing by considering each stage of the flight

research the effects of taking everyday objects to the Moon.

The larger the mass of the planet, the greater its gravitational force. Thus Jupiter has the greatest gravity, Mars the least.

The Moon has a gravity about one sixth that of Earth. The mass of an object on different planets remains the same, i.e. its amount of matter does not change. However, the effect of gravity on this Click here to go to the start of this Strandmass produces the force that we call its weight. As the gravity varies, so too does the weight.

Living Things & Processes of Life
Variety & characteristic features
D this is
Level E
F
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Processes of life
Earth & Space Energy & Forces

Force & their effects
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuLT-E1.1 Target Menu from G32 Variety & characteristic features
give the main distinguishing features of microorganisms

use secondary sources to research microorganisms and their role in disease, decay and food production

examine examples of the main groups of microorganisms under the microscope or using bioviewers, e.g. bacteria, yeast, fungi

grow fungi on bread sealed in petri dishes. Measure growth over a period of time

make simple yeast dough and observe and measure the increase in volume in a variety of conditions

The culture of microorganisms in schools requires that a teacher is trained in aseptic techniques and is able to carry out the procedures involved and the disposal safely.

The common features centre on microscopic size and on the rapid rate of multiplication. They also require similar culture techniques.

Click here to go to the start of this StrandThe dependence of viruses on living cells of other organisms is linked to their disease-causing characteristic.


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Target Menu from G21

Variety & characteristic features
create and use keys to identify living things

use published keys to identify a wide range of organisms, both plants and animals

use computer programs to identify organisms

produce simple keys to identify given groups of shells from a beach, leaves from trees, birds around the school, house plants from around the school

Keys should be of both branched and paired statement types. The decision points in the keys should not be made too difficult and should be made on the basis of readily observable external features. The keys should also be selected to avoid unnecessarily technical language. The value of diagrams in keys this stage cannot be overemphasised. Pupils use both types of keys with ease but branching keys are easier to create than paired statement keys and should be attempted first. Many pupils will need practice in the intermediate step of converting a branched key into a paired statement key before attempting a paired-statement key Click here to go to the start of this Strandalone. Keys should be made from observing living things rather than from pictures.
Access this Target MenuLT-E1.3 Target Menu from G27 Variety & characteristic features
give examples of inherited and environmental causes of variation

group work to make collections of pictures of particular types of familiar organisms, e.g. people, cats, dogs, roses, cabbages

discussion or investigation of ways in which individuals in each group are similar or different to others

count and record the number of seeds in the fruit of flowering plants, e.g. peas in a pod, pips in apples or oranges, or 'petals' on lawn daisies

measure and record variable features that occur in the group of pupils and discuss which are the result of inherited characteristics and which are due to environmental factors, e.g. tongue-rolling ability, ear lobes attached or unattached, left- or right-handedness and height, hand span, foot length

add to or create a database to store information about features

carry out an investigation into the variation in growth of seedlings such as cress, peas or beans.

Discontinuous variation arises from inherited characteristics. An organism either shows a characteristic or it does not. In humans examples include tongue rolling, left-handedness, blood grouping, and ear lobes. Eye colour is generally included in this group but can be confusing since a range of colours exists. The presentation of the findings will be a bar graph as the horizontal axis label will be descriptive and not numerical.

Continuous variation arises from the action of environmental factors and gives a smooth grading between two extremes with the majority of individuals being somewhere towards the centre (height, leaf length, etc.). Observations should be systematic and involve measurement; the graphical presentation will be in the form of a histogram.

Sensitivity to issues relating to parenthood is needed when talking about inheritance. Teachers may prefer to use fictional characters for this work. It is important to establish that some variation, e.g. height, may be a result of both inherited and environmental factors.Click here to go to the start of this Strand

Living Things & Processes of Life
The Processes of Life
D this is
Level E
F
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Variety &
characteristic features

Interaction of living things with their environment
Earth & Space Energy & Forces
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuLT-E2.1

Target Menu from G27

The Processes of Life

identify and give the functions of the main structures found in plant and animal cells

examine pictures or three-dimensional models of a range of cell types from animals and plants, or prepare slides of typical plant and animal cells and identify cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus

identify the cell wall and central vacuole in plant cells and the presence of chloroplasts

design and make 'junk' models of cells and discuss selection of materials for each cell part

make drawings of cells and describe the function of each cell structure

Pupils should know that living things are composed of many different types of cells that perform different functions. They should also know the basic structure and function of typical plant and animal cells and be aware of similarities and differences. They should be aware of how similar cells are grouped together to form tissues.

The care and use of microscopes will be an essential component of this part of the course. Pupils will need to practice using a microscope and in preparing simple slides including staining material. Current restrictions on which material can be safely used in schools should be observed.Click here to go to the start of this Strand


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Target Menu from G17

The Processes of Life
identify, name and give the functions of the main organs of the human reproductive system use diagrams and models and view video material

label male and female parts on diagrams and add function of each part

Programmes of delivery in primary and secondary schools will determine when this topic is taught and if it is integrated with work at lower levels. The emphasis should be on processes with names of parts given in a logical sequence to promote understanding of the processes involved in human reproduction (intercourse, fertilisation, menstruation, pregnancy to include the role of the placenta, umbilical cord, amnion and amniotic Click here to go to the start of this Strandfluid).

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Target Menu from G26

The Processes of Life
identify the raw materials, conditions and products of photosynthesis

view and discuss video material relating to plants and photosynthesis

formulate hypotheses about the factors that affect the ability of plants to carry out photosynthesis and test hypotheses experimentally

demonstrate oxygen production using a pondweed

use simulation software to investigate the effect of changing one factor in photosynthesis investigations

discuss and debate (using role play) the importance of green plants to the environment.

Pupils should be able to make suggestions about raw materials and conditions. They should be helped to convert their ideas into testable hypotheses and develop for themselves the photosynthesis word equation.

 

The method for testing green leaves for starch will have to be introduced and safety procedures adhered to.Click here to go to the start of this Strand

Living Things & Processes of Life
Interaction of living things with their environment
D this is
Level E
F
 Home Page Access to other Strands & Attainment Outcomes Skills
Processes of life
Earth & Space Energy & Forces
Level E Learning activities & links to Target Groups (G) in Framework for Planning Additional advice from Guide for Teachers & Managers
Target, Code & Menu
Access this Target MenuLT-E3.1

Target Menu from G26

Interaction of living things with their environment

construct and interpret simple food webs and make predictions of the consequences of change

construct simple food chains and webs based on observations of local habitats and other stimulus material

interpret data from prepared food webs and make predictions about the effects of altering the population of a member of the web

use computer simulation software involving population dynamics in ecosystems. Predict and test the effects of altering one factor

Food webs are diagrams that illustrate the feeding relationships of organisms in a habitat. Each web is composed of a number of interconnected food chains. Pupils should examine simple prepared webs before attempting to construct their own for a known habitat such as a pond, garden, woodland, or rock pool. Encourage pupils to consider what evidence can be used to find out what animals eat, e.g. owl pellets, bird droppings, teeth marks, remains found near lairs or nests and observations of feeding habits. An understanding of the effects of altering a food web should help pupils to Click here to go to the start of this Strandunderstand better the potential effects of human activity on the environment.

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Target Menu from G26

Interaction of living things with their environment
describe examples of competition between plants and between animals

investigate the effect on seedling growth of sowing seeds at different densities

investigate dispersal of seeds

view video material and access resources to find out about the effect of the introduction of the grey squirrel in Britain

carry out a survey of weeds growing, for example, in a lawn, wasteland or crop field

discuss/research the effect of selective weedkillers on specific food webs.

In every ecosystem there is a continual struggle for survival between organisms of the same species and between different species. Competition for space, light and food might have short-term effects on survival. Successful breeding ensures species survival. Competition in plants is usually for light and moisture. Seed dispersal reduces intraspecific competition and leads to colonisation of new areas.

The emphasis here is on the physical factors which affect the distribution of organisms in different habitats, e.g. light, temperature, oxygen availability.Click here to go to the start of this Strand


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Target Menu from G27

Interaction of living things with their environment
give examples of physical factors that affect the distribution of living things examine a range of common plants and identify an important environmental factor that affects their distribution

investigate the effect of moisture level in different soils and the variety and abundance of plants.

 

 

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